Understanding Hybrid Warfare in the Russia-Ukraine Conflict

illustration showing the dangers of cyber attacks in hybrid warfare (Sumber: istock/Artrotozwork)

The History and Definition of Hybrid Warfare

The concept of hybrid warfare is not a new phenomenon in the history of global conflicts. Although the term gained popularity in the 21st century, warfare strategies combining conventional and unconventional tactics have been employed since ancient times. Throughout history, many empires and states have utilized a combination of direct military engagements with methods such as sabotage, propaganda, infiltration, and the use of proxy groups to defeat adversaries without engaging in open battlefield confrontations.

One of the earliest examples of hybrid warfare tactics can be found in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) between Athens and Sparta. In this war, both sides relied not only on military strength but also on economic blockades, political manipulation, and strategic alliances to weaken their opponents. Similarly, during the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), French forces faced guerrilla warfare tactics from Spanish insurgents supported by Britain an early form of hybrid warfare that combined conventional battles with non-military resistance.

In the 20th century, hybrid warfare evolved significantly, particularly in conflicts involving non-state actors. The Vietnam War (1955–1975) serves as a crucial example, where the Viet Cong employed a combination of guerrilla warfare, propaganda, and political infiltration to combat the conventionally superior U.S. military forces. Additionally, during the Cold War (1947–1991), the United States and the Soviet Union avoided direct confrontation but engaged in various hybrid warfare methods such as proxy wars, covert operations, information warfare, and economic interventions to expand their spheres of influence.

The Contemporary Landscape of Hybrid Warfare

In today’s geopolitical landscape, conflicts between states and non-state actors no longer take the form of purely conventional military engagements. Hybrid warfare has become a new paradigm in conflict strategy, where multiple methods and instruments are used simultaneously to weaken adversaries without direct military confrontation. This form of warfare blends traditional military force with non-military tactics such as information warfare, cyberattacks, economic pressure, and the use of proxy groups to achieve specific political and strategic objectives.

A key characteristic of hybrid warfare is the difficulty in detecting its attack patterns, as it often operates below the threshold of conventional conflict. This strategy enables states or groups to exert pressure, disrupt, or dominate opponents without explicitly declaring war. Hybrid warfare also incorporates modern technologies such as cyber weaponry, digital propaganda, and psychological operations to create instability within enemy territories.

This approach is not limited to military tactics but also involves a series of asymmetric operations, including the spread of disinformation, manipulative political campaigns (black campaigns), and infiltration into the government or critical institutions of adversaries. Attacks can be carried out using unconventional weapons, including nuclear, biological, and chemical technology, as well as improvised explosive devices (CBRNE), creating unpredictable threats.

Frank Hoffman and the Definition of Hybrid Warfare

The concept of hybrid warfare was first introduced by Frank Hoffman, an American defense strategist. Hoffman originally defined hybrid war as being the incorporation of a, “range of different modes of warfare including conventional capabilities, irregular tactics and formations, terrorist acts including indiscriminate violence and coercion and criminal disorder” (Hoffman, 2007). While the definition of hybrid warfare remains diverse and continues to evolve, its essence highlights an adaptive and dynamic form of conflict capable of integrating multiple dimensions. This makes hybrid warfare a significant challenge for modern defense systems, requiring flexible, multidimensional responses that can adapt to continuously shifting threats.

The Hybrid Nature of Russia’s Attack on Ukraine

On February 24, 2022, Russia launched a sudden attack on Ukraine, shocking the Western world and altering global security perceptions. This event forced Western nations to confront a reality they had previously overlooked. Military strategists have long used the VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity, ambiguity) framework to describe challenging operational environments. Some have taken an even more pessimistic view, using the BANI (brittle, anxious, nonlinear, incomprehensible) model. Russia, whether intentionally or not, effectively created such conditions, placing the West in a state of uncertainty.

To understand Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, it is essential to consider President Vladimir Putin’s historical perspective. According to Putin, Russia has fought against Western threats for over a thousand years, with World War II being the last conflict solidifying its power. He believes that since the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1990, the West has sought to diminish Russia’s status as a global power, fostering a persistent sense of threat. In pursuing his goals, Putin has revived old KGB-era methods, including:

1. Disinformation and Misinformation

Russia actively disseminates fake news through various media channels. With outlets like RT and Sputnik, the Kremlin has built its own media industry to influence public opinion abroad. This disinformation often involves reinterpretations of historical events or existing facts.

2. Sabotage

Russia employs strategies to destabilize adversaries and erode public trust in their governments. These tactics frequently involve collaboration with criminal organizations to weaken the target country’s stability.

3. Digital Fire Accelerators

Unlike in the Soviet era, today’s internet and social media technologies are used to accelerate the spread of propaganda and cyberattacks.

Through these methods, hybrid warfare continues to evolve as a complex and flexible strategy. Conceptually, hybrid warfare can be seen as an antithesis to international law, which seeks to limit war through the United Nations Charter. However, in practice, states like Russia have exploited legal loopholes to achieve their strategic interests. The Hybrid CoE (Center of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats) identifies four key characteristics of hybrid warfare:

1. It does not occur as a single event but unfolds gradually.

2. It is conducted by actors with malicious intent to achieve specific goals.

3. It originates from authoritarian systems that challenge the democratic rule-based order.

4. It exploits the **gray zone**, where attackers take advantage of democratic nations’ reluctance to act decisively in defending their own legal frameworks.

Russia’s Hybrid Warfare in Ukraine

Before the full-scale military attack on February 24, 2022, Russia had already launched a sophisticated hybrid threat campaign against Ukraine and its neighboring countries. Initially, the United States, NATO, and the European Union were uncertain about Russia’s intentions, while the Baltic states, Sweden, and Finland grew increasingly anxious. Russia carefully sought weaknesses in the West and exploited them through a combination of legal, diplomatic, and propaganda tactics.

The prolonged military posturing around Ukraine further heightened global uncertainty. However, once the military invasion began, Russia encountered various strategic obstacles. Their forces failed to leverage the tactical agility they had previously relied upon. This was exacerbated by internal conflicts within Putin’s leadership circle, as seen when he publicly humiliated senior officials like Sergey Naryshkin and General Valery Gerasimov. As a result, Russia’s military structure suffered, leading to a more rigid approach that diminished the effectiveness of its ongoing hybrid warfare operations.

The Uncontrolled Evolution of Hybrid Warfare

Currently, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine can be understood as a form of hybrid warfare that has spiraled out of control. Initially, Russia relied on information and disinformation strategies to shape global opinion. However, following military setbacks in late February 2022, the conflict gradually shifted toward a more traditional conventional war. One of Russia’s primary propaganda objectives has been to degrade its opponents through systematic psychological operations.

Many political scientists argue that the Russia-Ukraine war has become a test case for modern warfare rules in unprecedented ways. As a global cyber power, Russia has not hesitated to employ information warfare, cyberattacks, and electromagnetic spectrum operations to weaken its adversaries. Western nations, including NATO and the European Union, are still grappling with how to counter this increasingly complex form of warfare.

The cyber domain has become a new battlefield, where digital attacks can be just as devastating as conventional military strikes. Warfare no longer occurs solely on land, sea, air, and space, but also within the information realm and cyberspace, presenting new challenges for global security in the future.

Conclusion

Russia’s attack on Ukraine on February 24, 2022, exemplifies a sophisticated form of hybrid warfare, reshaping global security perceptions. Russia has employed various strategies including disinformation, sabotage, and digital propaganda to weaken its adversaries without direct battlefield engagement. President Vladimir Putin views Western threats as the primary justification for these actions, reviving KGB era tactics to strengthen Russia’s strategic position.

Prior to the full-scale invasion, Russia had already launched a hybrid threat campaign, exploiting Western vulnerabilities through propaganda, diplomacy, and legal maneuvers. However, once the invasion commenced, these strategies encountered significant challenges, including military setbacks and internal leadership conflicts. As a result, the initially planned hybrid warfare evolved into a more conventional conflict that proved difficult to control.

Today, the Russia-Ukraine war serves as a key example of how modern warfare is evolving, particularly with the increasing use of cyber warfare and information manipulation. The world now faces new security challenges, where digital attacks can be just as devastating as conventional military strikes.

Muhammad Husen, International Relations Student, Tanjungpura University Pontianak